Classical philosophical traditions offer contrasting blueprints for human flourishing, with Aristotle focusing on the development of practical wisdom and virtue, while John Locke emphasizes the preservation of natural rights through organized government.
Aristotle on Virtue and Well-being
Aristotle’s ethical theory, as detailed in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, treats ethics as a field distinct from theoretical sciences because its subject matter—good action—requires a methodology that respects the complexity of human life. Aristotle believed that while many generalizations in ethics hold only for the most part, the ultimate goal of ethical inquiry is to improve human lives by understanding the nature of well-being.
According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Aristotle viewed ethical virtues, such as justice, courage, and temperance, as complex rational, emotional, and social skills. Unlike his predecessor Plato, Aristotle rejected the notion that complete virtue requires scientific or mathematical training in the nature of goodness. Instead, he argued that living well requires a proper appreciation of how various goods—including friendship, pleasure, virtue, honor, and wealth—interact as a cohesive whole.
The Role of Habitual Practice
The development of character in Aristotle's view relies heavily on practice rather than just the memorization of rules. He posited that practical wisdom cannot be acquired solely through learning general principles; instead, individuals must acquire deliberative, emotional, and social skills through habit and proper upbringing to apply their understanding of well-being to specific occasions.
Aristotle’s writings, specifically the Nicomachean Ethics and the Eudemian Ethics, explore the nature of 'arete' (virtue or excellence) and the conditions necessary for humans to live life at its best. While both works discuss eudaimonia—often translated as happiness or flourishing—the Nicomachean Ethics is widely considered a later, more refined version of the Eudemian Ethics. This later work also uniquely examines the relationship between ethical inquiry and politics, as well as the superiority of the philosophical life over the political life.
Locke and the State of Nature
In contrast to Aristotle's focus on internal character, the political theories of John Locke present a framework for human freedom based on the 'state of nature.' As documented by the National Constitution Center, Locke described this natural state as one of perfect freedom and equality, where individuals have the power to manage their actions and possessions according to the laws of nature without needing permission from others.
Locke’s theory posits that in this state, all men are equal and independent. While this state offers liberty, it is not a state of 'licence.' Under the law of nature, reason teaches mankind that because everyone is equal, no one has the right to harm another's life, health, liberty, or possessions. Locke emphasized that every individual has a right to their own body and the fruits of their labor; by mixing labor with natural resources, an individual makes those resources their property.
Consent and the Social Contract
The transition from a state of nature to a civil society occurs through the formation of government based on the consent of the governed. The National Constitution Center notes that Locke believed individuals join together into communities for 'comfortable, safe, and peaceable living,' specifically to ensure a more secure enjoyment of their properties.
This social contract establishes a majority authority to govern, but it also places strict limits on political power. According to Locke, the primary purpose of a legislative body is to act as a 'guard and fence' for the properties of society members, using laws to moderate dominion and prevent the abuse of power.
The Right to Resist Tyranny
Locke’s framework includes a critical provision for the right of revolution. He argued that if a government fails to protect the property and safety of its people, or if legislators attempt to reduce the population to slavery under arbitrary power, they breach the fundamental trust of society. In such cases, the people are absolved from obedience and retain the right to establish a new legislature.
Locke addressed skeptics who argued that such a principle might encourage frequent rebellions, asserting that people generally will not seek to overthrow a government unless they are made miserable by the 'ill usage of arbitrary power.' This tension between the preservation of order and the protection of inherent rights remains a cornerstone of Enlightenment political thought.
